The Chemistry

When carbon dioxide (CO₂) is absorbed by seawater, chemical reactions occur that reduce seawater pH, carbonate ion concentration, and saturation states of biologically important calcium carbonate minerals. These chemical reactions are termed “ocean acidification” or “OA” for short. Calcium carbonate minerals are the building blocks for the skeletons and shells of many marine organisms. In areas where most life now congregates in the ocean, the seawater is supersaturated with respect to calcium carbonate minerals. This means there are abundant building blocks for calcifying organisms to build their skeletons and shells. However, continued ocean acidification is causing many parts of the ocean to become undersaturated with these minerals, which is likely to affect the ability of some organisms to produce and maintain their shells.

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the pH of surface ocean waters has fallen by 0.1 pH units. Since the pH scale, like the Richter scale, is logarithmic, this change represents approximately a 30 percent increase in acidity. Future predictions indicate that the oceans will continue to absorb carbon dioxide and become even more acidic. Estimates of future carbon dioxide levels, based on business as usual emission scenarios, indicate that by the end of this century the surface waters of the ocean could be nearly 150 percent more acidic, resulting in a pH that the oceans haven’t experienced for more than 20 million years.

The Biological Impacts

Ocean acidification is expected to impact ocean species to varying degrees. Photosynthetic algae and seagrasses may benefit from higher CO₂ conditions in the ocean, as they require CO₂ to live just like plants on land. On the other hand, studies have shown that a more acidic environment has a dramatic effect on some calcifying species, including oysters, clams, sea urchins, shallow water corals, deep sea corals, and calcareous plankton. When shelled organisms are at risk, the entire food web may also be at risk. Today, more than a billion people worldwide rely on food from the ocean as their primary source of protein. Many jobs and economies in the U.S. and around the world depend on the fish and shellfish in our oceans.

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Pteropods

The pteropod, or “sea butterfly”, is a tiny sea creature about the size of a small pea. Pteropods are eaten by organisms ranging in size from tiny krill to whales and are a major food source for North Pacific juvenile salmon. The photos below show what happens to a pteropod’s shell when placed in sea water with pH and carbonate levels projected for the year 2100. The shell slowly dissolves after 45 days.  Photo credit: David Liittschwager/National Geographic Stock. Used with permission. All rights reserved. National Geographic Images.

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Shellfish

In recent years, there have been near total failures of developing oysters in both aquaculture facilities and natural ecosystems on the West Coast. These larval oyster failures appear to be correlated with naturally occurring upwelling events that bring low pH waters undersaturated in aragonite as well as other water quality changes to nearshore environments. Lower pH values occur naturally on the West Coast during upwelling events, but a recent observations indicate that anthropogenic CO₂ is contributing to seasonal undersaturation. Low pH may be a factor in the current oyster reproductive failure; however, more research is needed to disentangle potential acidification effects from other risk factors, such as episodic freshwater inflow, pathogen increases, or low dissolved oxygen. It is premature to conclude that acidification is responsible for the recent oyster failures, but acidification is a potential factor in the current crisis to this $100 million a year industry, prompting new collaborations and accelerated research on ocean acidification and potential biological impacts.

Photo: Freshly harvested oysters from Yaquina Bay, Oregon (Credit: NOAA)

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Coral

Many marine organisms that produce calcium carbonate shells or skeletons are negatively impacted by increasing CO₂ levels and decreasing pH in seawater. For example, increasing ocean acidification has been shown to significantly reduce the ability of reef-building corals to produce their skeletons. In a recent paper, coral biologists reported that ocean acidification could compromise the successful fertilization, larval settlement and survivorship of Elkhorn coral, an endangered species. These research results suggest that ocean acidification could severely impact the ability of coral reefs to recover from disturbance. Other research indicates that, by the end of this century, coral reefs may erode faster than they can be rebuilt. This could compromise the long-term viability of these ecosystems and perhaps impact the estimated one million species that depend on coral reef habitat.  For more information on the impact of ocean acidification on coral, see NOAA’s Coral Reef Watch website.

Ocean Acidification: An Emerging Global Problem

Ocean acidification is an emerging global problem. Over the last decade, there has been much focus in the ocean science community on studying the potential impacts of ocean acidification. Since sustained efforts to monitor ocean acidification worldwide are only beginning, it is currently impossible to predict exactly how ocean acidification impacts will cascade throughout the marine food chain and affect the overall structure of marine ecosystems. With the pace of ocean acidification accelerating, scientists, resource managers, and policymakers recognize the urgent need to strengthen the science as a basis for sound decision making and action.

~ NOAA

1789 First loan is raised to pay the salaries of the US President and Congress

1793 US President George Washington lays the cornerstone of the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C.

1873 Government bond agent Jay Cooke & Co collapses, causing panic on Wall Street and the start of the Panic of 1873 and the Long Depression

1891 The Seneca tribe gives Harriet Maxwell Converse an honorary position as chief, making her the first white woman to become a Native American chief

1947 Central Intelligence Agency officially comes into existence after being established by President Truman in July

1394 – In France, Charles VI published an ordinance that expelled all Jews from France.

1778 – The United States signed its first treaty with a Native American tribe, the Delaware Nation.

1787 – The Constitution of the United States of America was signed by delegates at the Constitutional Convention.

1796 – U.S. President George Washington’s Farewell Address was read before the U.S. Congress.

1862 – The Battle of Antietam took place during the American Civil War. More than 23,000 men were killed, wounded, or missing. The Rebel advance was ended with heavy losses to both armies.

1872 – Phillip W. Pratt patented a version of the sprinkler system.

1911 – The first transcontinental airplane flight started. It took C.P. Rogers 82 hours to fly from New York City to Pasadena, CA.

1920 – The American Professional Football Association was formed in Canton, OH. It was the precursor to the National Football League (NFL).

1930 – Construction on Boulder Dam, later renamed Hoover Dam, began in Black Canyon, near Las Vegas, NV.

1932 – Sir Malcolm Campbell set a speed record when he reached 276.27 mph over a half mile.

1937 – At Mount Rushmore, Abraham Lincoln’s face was dedicated.

1939 – The Soviet Union invaded Poland. Germany had invaded Poland on September 1.

1944 – Operation “Market Garden” was launched by Allied paratroopers during World War II. The landing point was behind German lines in the Netherlands.

1947 – The first U.S. Secretary of Defense, James V. Forrestal, was sworn in to office.

1953 – Ernie Banks became the first black baseball player to wear a Chicago Cubs uniform. He retired in 1971 known as ‘Mr. Cub’.

1953 – The Ochsner Foundation Hospital in New Orleans, LA, successfully separated Siamese twins. Carolyn Anne and Catherine Anne Mouton were connected at the waist when born.

1955 – “The Perry Como Show” moved to Saturday nights on NBC-TV.

1961 – The Minnesota Vikings were debuted as the new National Football League (NFL) team.

1962 – U.S. space officials announced the selection of Neil A. Armstrong and eight others as new astronauts.

1963 – “The Fugitive” premiered on ABC-TV. The show starred David Janssen.

1964 – “Bewitched” premiered on ABC-TV.

1965 – “Hogan’s Heroes” debuted on CBS-TV.

1966 – “Mission Impossible” premiered on CBS-TV.

1972 – “M*A*S*H” premiered on CBS-TV.

1976 – NASA unveiled the space shuttle Enterprise in Palmdale, CA.

1983 – Vanessa Williams, as Miss New York, became the first black woman to be crowned Miss America.

1983 – Johnny Bench (Cincinnati Reds) retired after 16 years as a catcher.

1983 – Carl Yastrzemski (Boston Red Sox) broke Hank Aaron’s major league record for games played when he started his 3,299th game. (MLB)

1984 – 9,706 immigrants became naturalized citizens when they were sworn in by U.S. Vice-President George Bush in Miami, FL. It was the largest group to become U.S. citizens.

1984 – Gordon P. Getty was named the richest person in the U.S. His fortune was $4.1 billion.

1984 – Reggie Jackson hit his 500th career home run. It was exactly 17 years from the day he hit his first major league home run.

1988 – Lt. Gen. Prosper Avril declared himself president of Haiti after President Henri Hamphy was ousted.

1991 – The United Nations General Assembly opened its 46th session. The new members were Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, North and South Korea, Micronesia and the Marshall Islands.

1992 – Lawrence Walsh called a halt to his probe of the Iran-Contra scandal. The investigation had lasted 5 1/2 years.

1995 – Hong Kong held its last legislative election before being taken over by China in 1997.

1997 – Northern Ireland’s main Protestant party joined in peace talks. It was the first time that all of the major players had come together.

1998 – The United States government offered a reward for the capture of Haroun Fazil for his role in the U.S. bombing in Kenya on August 7, 1998.

1998 – The U.S. announced a plan that would compensate victims in the Kenya and Tanzania U.S. Embassy bombings on August 7, 1998.

2014 – The Dow Jones Industrial Average closed at an all time high of 17,156.

 

1778

Indians and Loyalists burn German Flats, New York »

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I-645 would repeal the Millionaires Tax, a historic new law that will modestly increase taxes on just the top half of one percent of Washingtonians – while cutting taxes for the other 99.5% of us. And the facts are clear: the Millionaires Tax is a tax only on millionaires and income over one million dollars.

The governor has promised to veto any expansion of the tax, and any attempt to expand the tax would inevitably end up in front of the voters as an initiative. In the end, voters will always have the final say about who pays this tax and can reject any efforts to expand it.

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