Following its ratification by the necessary three-quarters of U.S. states, the 14th Amendment, guaranteeing to African Americans citizenship and all its privileges, is officially adopted into the U.S. Constitution.

Two years after the Civil War, the Reconstruction Acts of 1867 divided the South into five military districts, where new state governments, based on universal manhood suffrage, were to be established.

Thus, began the period known as Radical Reconstruction, which saw the 14th Amendment, which had been passed by Congress in 1866, ratified in July 1868. 

The amendment resolved pre-Civil War questions of African American citizenship by stating that “all persons born or naturalized in the United States…are citizens of the United States and of the state in which they reside.”

The amendment then reaffirmed the privileges and rights of all citizens, and granted all these citizens the “equal protection of the laws.” In the decades after its adoption, the equal protection clause was cited by a number of African American activists who argued that racial segregation denied them the equal protection of law.

However, in 1896, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson that states could constitutionally provide segregated facilities for African Americans, so long as they were equal to those afforded white persons. The Plessy v. Ferguson decision, which announced federal toleration of the so-called “separate but equal” doctrine, was eventually used to justify segregating all public facilities, including railroad cars, restaurants, hospitals, and schools.

However, “colored” facilities were never equal to their white counterparts, and African Americans suffered through decades of debilitating discrimination in the South and elsewhere.

In 1954, Plessy v. Ferguson was finally struck down by the Supreme Court in its ruling in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.

history.com

The Electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for President and Vice–President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice–President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;the President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President

Constitution.congress.gov

Jul 27, 2020 The July 28, 1917 Silent Protest Parade on Fifth Avenue in New York City, was one of the first major mass demonstrations by African Americans. Conceived by James Weldon Johnson and organized by the NAACP with church and community leaders, the protest parade united an estimated 10,000 African Americans who marched down Fifth Avenue, gathering at 55th–59th Streets and proceeding to Madison Square, silently carrying banners condemning racist violence and racial discrimination. More info: https://beinecke.library.yale.edu/191…

1944 – The U.S. Army began desegregating its training camp facilities. Black platoons were then assigned to white companies in the first step toward battlefield integration.

However, the official order integrating the armed forces didn’t come until July 26, 1948, signed by President Harry Truman.

Executive Order 9981 is an executive order issued on July 26, 1948, by President Harry S. Truman. It abolished discrimination “on the basis of race, color, religion or national origin” in the United States Armed Forces. The executive order led to the end of segregation in the services during the Korean War (1950-1953).^[1]

The 21st Century ROAD to Housing Act (H.R. 6644) became law on July 11, 2026, after passing Congress on June 23. It is one of the largest federal housing‑supply packages in decades and includes more than 40 sections across 12 titles

The major new U.S. housing law in 2026 is the 21st Century ROAD to Housing Act, enacted July 11, 2026, which expands housing supply, limits large institutional home purchases, streamlines voucher inspections, and promotes affordable construction.

Overview of the 21st Century ROAD to Housing Act (2026)

The 21st Century ROAD to Housing Act (H.R. 6644) became law on July 11, 2026, after passing Congress on June 23. It is one of the largest federal housing‑supply packages in decades and includes more than 40 sections across 12 titles.

Key Federal Provisions

• Increasing Housing Supply:
  Reduces regulatory barriers, encourages zoning reform, and incentivizes local governments to allow more housing construction. 
• Institutional Investor Restrictions:
  Limits purchases of new single‑family homes by large institutional investors owning 350+ homes, with exceptions for build‑to‑rent. 
• Voucher Inspection Streamlining:
  Allows units already inspected under LIHTC, HOME, or USDA programs to satisfy Housing Choice Voucher inspections, reducing delays. 
• Whole‑Home Repair Pilot:
  Grants and forgivable loans for repairs and modifications for homeowners and landlords. 
• Small‑Dollar Mortgage Expansion:
  FHA pilot for mortgages ≤100,000 USD and CFPB review of lending rules to improve access in lower‑cost markets. 
• Manufactured & Modular Housing Reforms:
  Removes permanent chassis requirement, updates financing limits, and expands modular housing financing. 
• CDBG Flexibility:
  Allows CDBG funds to support new affordable housing construction and ties some funding to local production performance. 

House Amendment Differences (May 2026)

The House amendment to the Act introduced several changes:

• Removed six sections (e.g., lifting RAD cap, permanent CDBG‑DR authorization).
• Restored 18 sections from the Housing for the 21st Century Act, including new PHA oversight rules.
• Modified institutional investor restrictions by removing the seven‑year forced divestiture requirement.
• Added a requirement for CDBG grantees to publish databases of undeveloped public land.
  

Related Legislation: Housing for the 21st Century Act (2026)

Passed by the House in February 2026, this act overlaps heavily with the ROAD Act and includes:

• Land‑use policy guidelines and best practices.
• Streamlined environmental review processes.
• Adjusted FHA multifamily loan limits.
• GAO study on workforce housing.
  

State‑Level Housing Reforms in 2026

States also advanced significant housing reforms:

Arizona (2026)

• SB1431: Prohibits cities from requiring HOAs or aesthetic standards for single‑family homes; prevents permit delays based on such requirements.
• SB1787: Codifies Sheetz v. El Dorado by requiring individualized determinations of exactions (vetoed April 7, 2026).
  

California (2026)

• AB1070: Studies shifting missing‑middle housing to residential building code.
• AB1294: Creates uniform permit applications and prevents incomplete‑permit classifications.
• SB1014 & SB1116: Streamline urban infill townhome production and infrastructure requirement disclosures.
  

Summary

The year 2026 saw sweeping federal and state housing reforms centered on expanding supply, reducing regulatory barriers, limiting institutional investor dominance, and improving affordability.

Sources: housingaffordabilityinstitute.org , CNBC , Congress.gov , bipartisanpolicy.org , narpm.org , copilot